Brain, and play a role in the regulation of neuronal migration. Knowledge of the brain distribution of Nischarin presented in this paper may be a starting point for considering Nischarin as a potential therapeutic target for a broad spectrum of diseases of the nervous system.AcknowledgmentsWe thank the members of Linghui Zeng’s lab for helpful discussions. We thank Iain C. Bruce for a critical reading and language revision of the manuscript.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: YD XZ QX. Performed the experiments: YD RZ KZ XL YC AL XZ. Analyzed the data: YD KZ XZ QX. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: LW. Wrote the paper: YD XZ QX.
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global public health threat, with over 1.4 million deaths reported in 2010 [1]. Cachexia is characteristic of TB with approximately two-thirds of patients presenting with dramatic weight loss [2,3]. TB was known as consumption because of this effect. Most patients improve clinically and gain weight within weeks of starting appropriate treatment [2]. Cachexia has been linked to poor prognosis and is a major risk factor for mortality [4?]. However, exact mechanisms behind this wasting are poorly understood. CI-1011 custom synthesis peptide YY (PYY) is a hormone secreted by the distal small intestine and large intestine that inhibits appetite through feedback into the hypothalamus. High PYY levels have been linked to decreased appetite and food intake [7]. PYY is elevated in patients with malabsorptive disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease [8], celiac sprue [9], and infectious diarrhea [10], and in patientswith anorexia nervosa and cancer in the absence of known GI illness [11,12]. Dysregulation in PYY secretion could therefore be associated with decreased food intake and subsequent weight loss in a range of disease processes. To our knowledge, there is no published data on PYY secretion in TB. Leptin binds to hypothalamic receptors leading to decreased appetite and increased energy expenditure [13]. Produced in adipocytes, it increases with fat mass and has also been linked to inflammatory mediators, thus has emerged as a key candidate in the mechanism of infection-induced weight loss [14,15]. Previous studies of leptin activity in TB have shown conflicting results, with authors reporting increases [16], decreases [17?9], or no change [20] in baseline leptin. Resistin, also produced in adipose tissue, has been linked to insulin resistance, obesity, and type 2 diabetes in murine studies [21]. Resistin decreases food intake, possibly through blockingCachexia in TBthe orexigenic effects of neuropeptide Y (a similar pathway to PYY) [22]. Though this hormone has been studied in cancer [21,23,24], we found no data on resistin 23977191 in infection-related cachexia. The role of ghrelin in cachexia is unclear. Produced in endocrine cells of the stomach, ghrelin induces a positive energy balance by stimulating food intake and reducing fat utilization, acting through vagal afferent pathways to increase feeding, promote gastric emptying, decrease energy consumption, and stimulate pituitary release of growth hormone [25]. This peptide’s anti-inflammatory properties have generated substantial interest. Ghrelin decreases pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations and CB 5083 web muscle breakdown in inflammatory states, and peripheral injection of ghrelin protects against cytokine-mediated anorexia [25]. Circulating concentrations of the peptide are elevated in patients with cachexia resulting from.Brain, and play a role in the regulation of neuronal migration. Knowledge of the brain distribution of Nischarin presented in this paper may be a starting point for considering Nischarin as a potential therapeutic target for a broad spectrum of diseases of the nervous system.AcknowledgmentsWe thank the members of Linghui Zeng’s lab for helpful discussions. We thank Iain C. Bruce for a critical reading and language revision of the manuscript.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: YD XZ QX. Performed the experiments: YD RZ KZ XL YC AL XZ. Analyzed the data: YD KZ XZ QX. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: LW. Wrote the paper: YD XZ QX.
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global public health threat, with over 1.4 million deaths reported in 2010 [1]. Cachexia is characteristic of TB with approximately two-thirds of patients presenting with dramatic weight loss [2,3]. TB was known as consumption because of this effect. Most patients improve clinically and gain weight within weeks of starting appropriate treatment [2]. Cachexia has been linked to poor prognosis and is a major risk factor for mortality [4?]. However, exact mechanisms behind this wasting are poorly understood. Peptide YY (PYY) is a hormone secreted by the distal small intestine and large intestine that inhibits appetite through feedback into the hypothalamus. High PYY levels have been linked to decreased appetite and food intake [7]. PYY is elevated in patients with malabsorptive disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease [8], celiac sprue [9], and infectious diarrhea [10], and in patientswith anorexia nervosa and cancer in the absence of known GI illness [11,12]. Dysregulation in PYY secretion could therefore be associated with decreased food intake and subsequent weight loss in a range of disease processes. To our knowledge, there is no published data on PYY secretion in TB. Leptin binds to hypothalamic receptors leading to decreased appetite and increased energy expenditure [13]. Produced in adipocytes, it increases with fat mass and has also been linked to inflammatory mediators, thus has emerged as a key candidate in the mechanism of infection-induced weight loss [14,15]. Previous studies of leptin activity in TB have shown conflicting results, with authors reporting increases [16], decreases [17?9], or no change [20] in baseline leptin. Resistin, also produced in adipose tissue, has been linked to insulin resistance, obesity, and type 2 diabetes in murine studies [21]. Resistin decreases food intake, possibly through blockingCachexia in TBthe orexigenic effects of neuropeptide Y (a similar pathway to PYY) [22]. Though this hormone has been studied in cancer [21,23,24], we found no data on resistin 23977191 in infection-related cachexia. The role of ghrelin in cachexia is unclear. Produced in endocrine cells of the stomach, ghrelin induces a positive energy balance by stimulating food intake and reducing fat utilization, acting through vagal afferent pathways to increase feeding, promote gastric emptying, decrease energy consumption, and stimulate pituitary release of growth hormone [25]. This peptide’s anti-inflammatory properties have generated substantial interest. Ghrelin decreases pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations and muscle breakdown in inflammatory states, and peripheral injection of ghrelin protects against cytokine-mediated anorexia [25]. Circulating concentrations of the peptide are elevated in patients with cachexia resulting from.